John Braithwaite extends labeling theory by arguing that labeling increases crime in some circumstances and reduces it in others. For example, the factors that explain why young adolescents start committing crime likely differ somewhat from those that explain why some older adolescents continue to commit crimes and others stop. Some individuals, however, learn beliefs that are favorable to crime and they are more likely to engage in crime as a result. The leading sociological theories focus on the immediate social environment, like the family, peer group, and school. They are poor and many are single parents struggling with family responsibilities. Contemporary Crises 1 (1977): 189–223. Labeled individuals may find that conventional people are reluctant to associate with them, and they may associate with other criminals as a result. Encyclopedia.com. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955. Sociological Theories of Crime Causation Professor Byrne Oct.2011 Lecture. Some people believe that concentrated poverty is the cause of crime. Some offenders, for example, limit their offending to the adolescent years. Individuals may also expect their efforts to reap certain rewards in the future; for example, one might anticipate getting into college or professional school, obtaining a good job, and living in a nice house. At other times, the reinforcement for crime is less deliberate. Social learning theory has much support and is perhaps the dominant theory of crime today. Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice. According to social learning theory, juveniles learn to engage in crime in the same way they learn to engage in conforming behavior: through association with or exposure to others. References . And economic norms have come to penetrate these other institutions (e.g., the school system, like the economic system, is based on the individualized competition for rewards). For example, individuals are more likely to imitate others' behavior if they observe them receive reinforcement for their acts. Finally, labeled individuals may eventually come to view themselves as criminals and act in accord with this self-concept. Further, they claim that low self-control is the central cause of crime; other types of control and other causes of crime are said to be unimportant once level of self-control is established. Such reintegration may occur "through words or gestures of forgiveness or ceremonies to decertify the offender as deviant" (pp. Elliott's theory states that strain and labeling reduce social control. Other individuals may not only reinforce our crime, they may also teach us beliefs favorable to crime. Therefore, given the limited utility of family studies to separate issues of nature versus nurture, this section will focus on two other epidemiological research designs that are better equipped to test for genetic effects. These people may attempt to "accomplish masculinity" through crime. Cornish, Derek B.; and Clarke, Ronald V. The Reasoning Criminal. American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): 774–802. Shaw and McKay’s (1931) study “Juvenile Delinquency in Urban Areas.” In this study Shaw and McKay examined areas which had high rates of crime and acts of delinquency, they found a correlation … . Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Further, Thornberry argues that the causes of crime vary over the life course. One reason for this is that some juveniles have more to lose by engaging in deviance. People want to be positively regarded by others and they want to be treated respectfully by others, which at a minimum involves being treated in a just or fair manner. Reintegrative shaming is said to be more likely in certain types of social settings, for example, where individuals are closely attached to their parents, neighbors, and others. The most prominent of these integrations are those of Terence P. Thornberry and Delbert S. Elliott and associates. Much recent attention, in fact, has been devoted to the explanation of crime across the life course, as described in the text by Vold, Bernard, and Snipes. Twin studies.Twin studies support the contention that a … Labeling increases subsequent crime when no effort is made to reintegrate the offender back into conventional society; that is, when offenders are rejected or informally labeled on a long-term basis. In particular, labeling reduces crime when offenders are made to feel a sense of shame or guilt for what they have done, but are eventually forgiven and reintegrated into conventional groups—like family and conventional peer groups. Other major institutions—the family, school, and the political system—are subservient to economic institutions. The individual's drug use has been negatively reinforced. Further, sociologists are coming to recognize that they need to take account of the factors considered in biological, psychological, and other theories of crime. Data in this area are somewhat mixed, but recent studies suggest that males, young people, and possibly lower-class people are more likely to hold beliefs favorable to violence. But even the most predisposed people do not commit crime all of the time. They are reinforced for crime, they learn beliefs that are favorable to crime, and they are exposed to criminal models. According to social learning theory, some individuals are in environments where crime is more likely to be reinforced (and less likely to be punished). Felson, Marcus. Agnew, Robert. Rather, they simply focus on the immediate, short-term benefits or pleasures of criminal acts. Some females, of course, do engage in crime. "Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency." These efforts, however, are more effective with some people than with others. Studies have found that a range of negative events and conditions increase the likelihood of crime. Merton, Robert K. "Social Structure and Anomie." https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/crime-causation-sociological-theories, "Crime Causation: Sociological Theories In direct monitoring, the person is under the direct surveillance of a parent or other conventional "authority figure." Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice. Their amoral beliefs simply free them to pursue their needs and desires in the most expedient way. See also Class and Crime; Crime Causation: Biological Theories; Crime Causation: Economic Theories; Crime Causation: Political Theories; Crime Causation: Psychological Theories; Delinquent and Criminal Subcultures; Deviance; Family Relationships and Crime; Gender and Crime; Juvenile and Youth Gangs; Mass Media and Crime; Race and Crime; Riots: Behavioral Aspects; Unemployment and Crime; White-Collar Crime: History of an Idea. These factors are said to reduce the ability or willingness of community residents to exercise effective social control, that is, to exercise direct control, provide young people with a stake in conformity, and socialize young people so that they condemn delinquency and develop self-control. Agnew, however, points to certain types of strain not considered in these previous versions and provides a fuller discussion of the conditions under which strain is most likely to lead to crime. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Dix Hills, N.Y.: General Hall, 1992. In doing so, however, this work draws heavily on the central ideas of control, social learning, and strain theories. focus on the failure to achieve three related goals: money, status/respect, and—for adolescents—autonomy from adults. Another key factor is whether individuals blame their strain on the deliberate behavior of someone else. . Others offend at high rates across the life course. A General Theory of Crime. Control theory goes on to argue that people differ in their level of control or in the restraints they face to crime. Strain theories view crime as resulting from the anger people experience over their inability to achieve legitimate social and economic success. Crime and the American Dream. Braithwaite, John. Crime causation theories can vary greatly. Individuals who are arrested, prosecuted, and punished are labeled as criminals. Greenberg, David F. "Delinquency and the Age Structure of Society." Finally, a major goal of most adolescents is autonomy from adults. These communities exist primarily in inner city areas and they are populated largely by members of minority groups (due to the effects of discrimination). The paper looks into the major theories of crime causation. crime. There are class and race differences in views about what it means to be a "man," although most such views emphasize traits like independence, dominance, toughness, competitiveness, and heterosexuality. A theory that argues for social and environmental causes of crime is Robert Merton’s… Unlike most contemporary anomie theories, Durkheim’s theory, as elaborated in this article, integrates a theory of crime causation with an account of criminal law. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1986. Sampson, Robert J.; and Groves, W. Byron. Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Cambridge, Mass. Why do people engage in crime according to strain theory? The imitation of criminal models. They eventually accept or "internalize" this belief, and they are less likely to engage in Recent data provide some support for these arguments. Informal labeling is said to have a greater effect on subsequent crime than official labeling. Feminist theories. People do not want to jeopardize that investment by engaging in delinquency. Those with a lot to lose will be more fearful of being caught and sanctioned and so will be less likely to engage in crime. Terms of Use, Crime Causation: Sociological Theories - Control Theory, Crime Causation: Sociological Theories - Strain Theory, Law Library - American Law and Legal Information, Crime Causation: Sociological Theories - Strain Theory, Social Learning Theory, Control Theory, Labeling Theory, Social Disorganization Theory, Critical Theories. If they believe that others see them as delinquents and trouble-makers, they are more likely to act in accord with this perception and engage in delinquency. Bursik, Robert J., Jr.; and Grasmick, Harold G. Neighborhoods and Crime. Attractive targets are visible, accessible, valuable, and easy to move. At other times, the reinforcement for crime is less deliberate. Both types of theories make valid points about the causes of crime, yet they are have different implications for … Finally, some people have personality traits that make them less responsive to the above controls and less able to restrain themselves from acting on their immediate desires. Feminist theories focus on gender differences in power as a source of For example, individuals are more likely to imitate others' behavior if they observe them receive reinforcement for their acts. As a consequence, such people experience strain and they may attempt to get money through illegal channels—such as theft, selling drugs, and prostitution. The above theories examine how the social environment causes individuals to engage in crime, but they typically devote little attention to the official reaction to crime, that is, to the reaction of the police and other official agencies. Primary or intimate groups like the family and peer group have an especially large impact on what we learn. In positive reinforcement, the behavior results in something good—some positive consequence. Further, sociologists are increasingly recognizing that their theories may require modification if they are to explain crime in different groups and among different types of offenders. For example, they have the verbal skills to negotiate with others or the financial resources to hire a lawyer. Theories of crime causation can be separated into trait theories and choice theories. Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, and Robert Sampson and John Laub have extended Hirschi's theory in important ways. For example, all juveniles are subject to more or less the same direct controls at school: the same rules, the same monitoring, and the same sanctions if they deviate. Gottfredson and Hirschi claim that one's level of self-control is determined early in life and is then quite resistant to change. For example, Cohen and Felson point to a major change in routine activities since World War II: people are more likely to spend time away from home. There is a focus on elements within locations which can influence the likelihood of crime, including lighting conditions, state of buildings, pathways, car parking areas, etc. Control theories describe the major types of social control or the major restraints to crime. Vold, George B.; Bernard, Thomas J.; and Snipes, Jeffrey B. Individuals may teach others to engage in crime through the reinforcements and punishments they provide for behavior. And modified versions of such theories will be developed to explain crime in different groups and among different types of offenders. Individuals who report that they love and respect their parents and other conventional figures usually commit fewer crimes. First, some people generally approve of certain minor forms of crime, like certain forms of consensual sexual behavior, gambling, "soft" drug use, and—for adolescents—alcohol use, truancy, and curfew violation. And data suggest that each type of belief increases the likelihood of crime. Morris himself said of his above mentioned study that the physical characteristics of an area are only important because they determine socio-economic status. The above theories focus on the factors that create a general willingness or predisposition to engage in crime, locating such factors in the immediate and larger social environment. If not, such individuals may form an amoral orientation to crime: they believe that crime is neither good nor bad. All people, poor as well as rich, are encouraged to work hard so that they might make a lot of money.
Social learning theory has much support and is perhaps the dominant theory of crime today. criminology, the study of crime, society's response to it, and its prevention, including examination of the environmental, hereditary, or psychologic…, Crimes committed by persons of respectability have drawn the attention of societies throughout history. Many males, especially those who are young, lower-class, and members of minority groups, experience difficulties in satisfying their desire to be viewed and treated as men. Each type has two or more components. Labeling theory focuses on the official reaction to crime and makes a rather counterintuitive argument regarding the causes of crime. Related to this, strain is more likely to lead to delinquency among individuals with few conventional social supports. Such communities have increased for several reasons. Most people have put a lot of time and energy into conventional activities, like "getting an education, building up a business, [and] acquiring a reputation for virtue" (Hirschi, p. 20). Most people believe that crime is wrong and this belief acts as a major restraint to crime. In indirect monitoring, the parent or authority figure does not directly observe the person but makes an effort to keep tabs on what they are doing. ." Others then view and treat these people as criminals, and this increases the likelihood of subsequent crime for several reasons. Likewise, delinquency affects many of its causes: for example, it reduces attachment to parents and increases association with delinquent peers (an argument compatible with labeling theory). Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld's institutional anomie theory draws on control and social learning theories to explain the high crime rate in the United States. If people have a strong emotional attachment to conventional others, like family members and teachers, they have more to lose by engaging in crime. Some individuals, however, learn beliefs that are favorable to crime and they are more likely to engage in crime as a result. Effective sanctions are consistent, fair, and not overly harsh. Retrieved December 21, 2020 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/law/legal-and-political-magazines/crime-causation-sociological-theories. Encyclopedia.com. Keywords Anomie, crime, criminal law, Durkheim. Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). Monitoring behavior, and irritability these integrations are those of Terence P. thornberry and Delbert S. ; Huizinga, ;! 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